Body
The Institute's work on economic sanctions was developed in the 1980s and has constantly been updated and revised since then by the intact team of Gary Clyde Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott, Kimberly Ann Elliott, and Barbara Oegg. The team's latest analysis and recommendations and more than 200 case studies have been published as a CD-ROM in the third edition of Economic Sanctions Reconsidered.
Timelines
Post-2000 Sanctions Episodes [PDF]
Case Studies
Afghanistan
Case 99-1
US and UN v. Afghanistan (Taliban)
(1999–2002: extradition of Osama Bin Laden)
Arab League
Case 76-3 (formerly 65-4)
US v. Arab League (1979– : Antiboycott Measures)
Burma (Myanmar)
Case 88-1
US, EU, Japan v. Burma (Myanmar) (1988– : Human rights, democracy, narcotics)
China
Case 89-2
US v. China (1989– : Tiananmen Square Massacre, Human Rights)
Cuba
Case 60-3 [PDF]
US v. Cuba (1960– : Castro)
India
Case 98-1
US v. India (1998– : Nuclear Weapons Proliferation)
Iran
Case 79-1 [PDF] and Cases 84-1 and 2006-1 [PDF]
US v. Iran (1979–81: Hostages)
US v. Iran (1984–2005: Terrorism, Proliferation)
UN, US [EU] v. Iran (2006– : Proliferation)
Iraq
Case 80-2 and Case 90-1
US v. Iraq (1980–2003: Terrorism; Chemical and Nuclear Weapons)
US and UN v. Iraq (1990– : Invasion of Kuwait, Impairment of military capability, destabilization)
Libya
Cases 78-8 and 92-12 and Case 2011-1 [PDF]
US v. Libya (1978–2004: Gadhafi, Terrorism) and
UN v. Libya (1992–99: Pan Am 103)
Australia, Canada, EU, Japan, NATO, UN, US v. Libya (2011– : Gadhafi, human rights)
North Korea
Cases 50-1 and 93-1 (updated) US and UN v. North Korea (1950– : Korean War)
US and UN v. North Korea (1993– : nuclear proliferation)
Pakistan
Case 79-2 and Case 99-3
US v. Pakistan (1979– : Nuclear Missile Proliferation)
US, Japan v. Pakistan (1999–2001: Coup, restore democracy)
South Africa
Cases 62-2 and 85-1
UN v. South Africa (1962–1994: Apartheid; Namibia)
US, Commonwealth v. South Africa (1985–91: Apartheid)
Sudan
Case 89-3 [PDF]
US v. Sudan (1989– : Human Rights; Civil War; Democracy)
Syria
Case 86-1 and Case 2011-2 [PDF]
US v. Syria (1986– : Terrorism)
EU, US v. Syrian Arab Republic (2011– : human rights, democracy)
Summary of economic sanctions episodes, 1914–2006
| Year imposed |
Year ended |
Principal sendera |
Target country |
Policy goal |
Cost
to target (percent of GNP) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1914 | 1918 | United Kingdom | Germany | Military victory |
12
|
7.1
|
| 1917 | 1918 | United States | Japan | Shipping for Allies |
4
|
0.8
|
| 1918 | 1920 | United Kingdom | Russia | Destabilize Bolsheviks |
2
|
4.1
|
| 1921 | 1921 | League of Nations | Yugoslavia | Military disruption vs. Albania |
16
|
–
|
| 1925 | 1925 | League of Nations | Greece | Withdraw from Bulgaria |
16
|
–
|
| 1932 | 1935 | League of Nations | Paraguay | Settle the Chaco War |
6
|
negligible
|
| 1932 | 1935 | League of Nations | Bolivia | Settle the Chaco War |
6
|
2.6
|
| 1933 | 1933 | United Kingdom | USSR | Release British citizens |
12
|
0.02
|
| 1935 | 1936 | League of Nations | Italy | Withdraw from Abyssinia |
2
|
1.7
|
| 1938 | 1947 | United States | Mexico | Expropriation dispute |
9
|
0.2
|
| 1939 | 1945 | United States | Germany | Regime change |
8
|
1.4
|
| 1939 | 1945 | United States | Germany | Military victory |
12
|
1.4
|
| 1940 | 1941 | United States | Japan | Withdraw from Southeast Asia |
1
|
0.9
|
| 1941 | 1945 | United States | Japan | Regime change |
8
|
1.9
|
| 1941 | 1945 | United States | Japan | Military victory |
12
|
1.9
|
| 1944 | 1947 | United States | Argentina | Destabilize Perón |
4
|
0.8
|
| 1946 | Ongoing | Arab League | Israel | Create Palestinian homeland |
4
|
1.7
|
| 1948 | 1994 | United States | USSR, Comecom | Impair military potential |
6
|
0.2
|
| 1948 | 1955 | USSR | Yugoslavia | Destabilize Tito government |
1
|
–2.5
|
| 1948 | 1949 | United States | Netherlands | Recognize Indonesia |
16
|
0.2
|
| 1948 | 1949 | USSR | France | Berlin blockade |
2
|
negligible
|
| 1948 | 1949 | USSR | United Kingdom | Berlin blockade |
2
|
0.1
|
| 1948 | 1949 | USSR | United States | Berlin blockade |
2
|
0.1
|
| 1948 | 1948 | India | Hyderabad | Assimilate Hyderabad |
8
|
2
|
| 1949 | 1970 | United States | China | Impair military potential |
2
|
0.5
|
| 1950 | Ongoing | United States | North Korea | Regime change |
1
|
1.2
|
| 1950 | Ongoing | United States | North Korea | Military impairment |
4
|
1.2
|
| 1950 | 1953 | United States | China | Military disruption, Korea |
2
|
0.5
|
| 1951 | 1953 | United States | Iran | Destabilize Mossadegh |
12
|
14.3
|
| 1954 | 1984 | Spain | United Kingdom | Sovereignty over Gibraltar |
6
|
0.009
|
| 1954 | 1974 | United States | North Vietnam | Military impairment |
1
|
1.6
|
| 1954 | 1961 | India | Portugal | Assimilate Goa into India |
8
|
negligible
|
| 1954 | 1954 | USSR | Australia | Repatriate Soviet defector |
2
|
0.5
|
| 1956 | 1983 | United States | Israel | Intermittent, various |
4
|
0.1
|
| 1956 | 1962 | United States | Laos | Destabilization |
9
|
4.2
|
| 1956 | 1956 | United States | Egypt | Suez nationalization |
9
|
3.4
|
| 1956 | 1956 | United States | United Kingdom | End Suez intervention |
12
|
0.3
|
| 1957 | 1963 | France | Tunisia | Assistance to Algerian rebels |
2
|
0.9
|
| 1957 | 1962 | Indonesia | Netherlands | Control of West Irian |
8
|
0.7
|
| 1958 | 1959 | USSR | Finland | Adopt pro-USSR policies |
16
|
1.1
|
| 1960 | 1989 | United States | Cuba | Destabilize Castro |
1
|
3.9
|
| 1960 | 1989 | United States | Cuba | Disruption of military adventures |
8
|
3.9
|
| 1960 | 1970 | USSR | China | Military impairment |
4
|
0.5
|
| 1960 | 1962 | United States | Dominican Republic | Destabilize Trujillo |
12
|
1.9
|
| 1961 | 1965 | United States | Ceylon | Expropriation dispute |
16
|
0.6
|
| 1961 | 1965 | USSR | Albania | Destabilize Hoxha |
1
|
0.6
|
| 1961 | 1962 | United States | German Democratic Republic | Berlin Wall |
2
|
–
|
| 1962 | 1994 | United Nations | South Africa | End apartheid, Namibia |
8
|
1.2
|
| 1962 | 1964 | United States | Brazil | Expropriation, destabilization |
12
|
0.6
|
| 1962 | 1963 | USSR | Romania | Limit economic independence |
2
|
–
|
| 1963 | 1974 | Organization of African Unity | Portugal | Free African colonies |
8
|
0.3
|
| 1963 | 1966 | Indonesia | Malaysia | "Crush Malaysia" |
2
|
1
|
| 1963 | 1966 | United States | Indonesia | Regime change |
8
|
2
|
| 1963 | 1966 | United States | Indonesia | End "Crush Malaysia" |
8
|
2
|
| 1963 | 1965 | United States | Egypt | Military disruption, Yemen, Congo |
12
|
1.4
|
| 1963 | 1963 | United States | South Vietnam | Destabilize Diem |
12
|
0.3
|
| 1964 | 1966 | France | Tunisia | Expropriation |
6
|
1.5
|
| 1965 | 1979 | United Nations | Rhodesia | Majority rule |
12
|
13
|
| 1965 | 1967 | United States | India | Agriculture policy |
16
|
0.08
|
| 1965 | 1966 | United States | Chile | Reduce copper price |
9
|
–
|
| 1967 | 1970 | Nigeria | Biafra | End civil war |
12
|
15.2
|
| 1968 | 1974 | United States | Peru | Expropriation |
12
|
0.7
|
| 1968 | 1968 | United States | Peru | French fighter jets |
1
|
0.7
|
| 1970 | 1973 | United States | Chile | Destabilize Allende |
12
|
1.5
|
| 1971 | 1971 | United States | Pakistan | Military disruption |
4
|
0.3
|
| 1971 | 1971 | United States | India | Military disruption |
4
|
0.1
|
| 1971 | 1971 | United Kingdom | Malta | Defense agreement |
6
|
4.4
|
| 1972 | 1979 | United States | Uganda | Destabilize Amin |
12
|
2.6
|
| 1973 | 1977 | United States | South Korea | Human rights |
4
|
1.8
|
| 1973 | 1974 | Arab League | Netherlands | Support for Israel |
9
|
4.0
|
| 1973 | 1974 | Arab League | United States | Support for Israel |
9
|
0.2
|
| 1974 | 1978 | United States | Turkey | Military disruption, Cyprus |
1
|
0.2
|
| 1974 | 1976 | Canada | India | Nuclear proliferation |
4
|
0.04
|
| 1974 | 1976 | Canada | Pakistan | Nuclear proliferation |
4
|
0.1
|
| 1975 | 1998 | United States | North Vietnam | Account for MIAs, withdrawal from Cambodia |
6
|
1.2
|
| 1975 | 1994 | United States | USSR | Freer emigration |
8
|
0.01
|
| 1975 | 1990 | United States | Chile | Human rights, democracy |
8
|
0.7
|
| 1975 | 1982 | United States | South Africa | Nuclear policy |
4
|
0.005
|
| 1975 | 1979 | United States | Kampuchea | Human rights, deter Vietnamese |
2
|
6.4
|
| 1975 | 1976 | United States | South Korea | Nuclear proliferation |
16
|
–
|
| 1976 | Ongoing | United States | Arab League | Antiboycott |
6
|
0.04
|
| 1976 | 1981 | United States | Uruguay | Human rights |
6
|
0.3
|
| 1976 | 1977 | United States | Taiwan | Nuclear policy |
16
|
0.1
|
| 1977 | 2005 | United States | Guatemala | Human rights |
9
|
0.2
|
| 1977 | 1992 | United States | Ethiopia | Human rights, expropriation |
6
|
–6.3
|
| 1977 | 1984 | United States | Brazil | Human rights |
6
|
0.1
|
| 1977 | 1983 | United States | Argentina | Human rights |
6
|
0.1
|
| 1977 | 1981 | United States | Paraguay | Human rights |
6
|
0.1
|
| 1977 | 1981 | United States | El Salvador | Human rights |
6
|
0.5
|
| 1977 | 1979 | United States | Nicaragua | Destabilize Somoza |
12
|
1.0
|
| 1977 | 1978 | Canada | European Community | Nuclear safeguards |
9
|
0.002
|
| 1977 | 1978 | Canada | Japan | Nuclear safeguards |
9
|
0.01
|
| 1978 | 2004 | United States | Libya | Destabilize Gadhafi |
12
|
1.7
|
| 1978 | 2004 | United States | Libya | Nuclear proliferation |
12
|
1.7
|
| 1978 | 1988 | China | Vietnam | Withdraw from Kampuchea |
6
|
3.5
|
| 1978 | 1983 | China | Albania | Anti-Chinese rhetoric |
2
|
3.3
|
| 1978 | 1983 | Arab League | Egypt | Camp David Accords |
2
|
–0.4
|
| 1978 | 1982 | United States | Argentina | Nuclear policy |
4
|
negligible
|
| 1978 | 1982 | United States | India | Nuclear policy |
4
|
0.01
|
| 1978 | 1981 | United States | Brazil | Nuclear policy |
4
|
0.002
|
| 1978 | 1980 | United States | USSR | Human rights (dissidents) |
2
|
0.003
|
| 1979 | 1997 | United States | Pakistan | Nuclear policy |
1
|
1.0
|
| 1979 | 1990 | United States | Chile | Assassination of Letelier |
12
|
0.7
|
| 1979 | 1982 | United States | Bolivia | Human rights, drugs |
6
|
1.7
|
| 1979 | 1981 | United States | Iran | Return hostages |
12
|
3.8
|
| 1979 | 1979 | Arab League | Canada | Planned embassy move |
12
|
0.003
|
| 1980 | 2003 | United States | Iraq | Terrorism |
4
|
0.1
|
| 1980 | 1981 | United States | USSR | Invasion of Afghanistan |
2
|
0.04
|
| 1980 | 1981 | United States | USSR | Impairment, Afghanistan |
2
|
0.04
|
| 1981 | 1990 | United States | Nicaragua | Destabilize Sandinistas |
8
|
3.2
|
| 1981 | 1987 | United States | Poland | Various, solidarity |
9
|
0.1
|
| 1981 | 1986 | European Community | Turkey | Restore democracy |
6
|
0.2
|
| 1981 | 1982 | United States | USSR | Impairment, Poland |
1
|
0.03
|
| 1982 | 1991 | Netherlands | Suriname | Human rights, Cuba-Libya influence |
9
|
6.2
|
| 1982 | 1986 | South Africa | Lesotho | Return South African refugees |
16
|
5.1
|
| 1982 | 1982 | United Kingdom | Argentina | Withdraw from Falklands |
12
|
0.6
|
| 1983 | 1989 | United States | Romania | Human rights, emigration |
6
|
0.4
|
| 1983 | 1988 | United States | Zimbabwe | Foreign policy |
4
|
0.4
|
| 1983 | 1986 | Australia | France | Nuclear testing |
2
|
negligible
|
| 1983 | 1983 | United States | USSR | KAL 007 shooting down |
2
|
negligible
|
| 1983 | 1983 | United States | Grenada | Destabilize Communist sympathizers |
8
|
negligible
|
| 1984 | Ongoing | United States | Iran | Nuclear proliferation, terrorism |
4
|
0.4
|
| 1984 | 1997 | United States | Lebanon | Hostage taking, Hezbollah activities |
6
|
1.0
|
| 1985 | 1991 | United States | South Africa | Apartheid |
12
|
1.9
|
| 1986 | Ongoing | United States | Syria | Terrorism |
6
|
0.02
|
| 1986 | 1999 | Greece | Turkey | Aegean Island, Cyprus, human rights |
4
|
0.1
|
| 1986 | 1992 | United States | Angola | Cuban troops, Marxism |
6
|
0.04
|
| 1986 | 1986 | France | New Zealand | Repatriation of French agents |
12
|
0.005
|
| 1987 | 2001 | India | Fiji | Restore democracy, modify Constitution |
4
|
0.9
|
| 1987 | 1990 | United States | Panama | Destabilize Noriega |
8
|
6.0
|
| 1987 | 1990 | United States | Haiti | Human rights, drugs, elections |
6
|
2.9
|
| 1987 | 1988 | United States | El Salvador | Amnesty |
16
|
–
|
| 1988 | Ongoing | United States | Burma | Human rights, elections |
4
|
1.7
|
| 1988 | Ongoing | United Nations | Somalia | Human rights, civil war |
2
|
7.5
|
| 1989 | Ongoing | United States | China | Human rights (Tiananmen Square) |
2
|
negligible
|
| 1989 | Ongoing | United States | Sudan | Human rights, democracy |
4
|
3.7
|
| 1989 | Ongoing | Turkey, Azerbijan | Armenia | Withdraw from Nagorno-Karabakh |
2
|
4.0
|
| 1989 | 1990 | India | Nepal | Relations with China |
9
|
4.6
|
| 1990 | Ongoing | United States | Cuba | Destabilize Castro |
4
|
14.0
|
| 1990 | 1997 | United States | Zaire | Democracy |
4
|
3.8
|
| 1990 | 1997 | United States | Yemen et al. | Enforce UN embargo vs. Iraq |
9
|
5.2
|
| 1990 | 1994 | United States | Jordan | Enforce UN embargo vs. Iraq |
6
|
5.6
|
| 1990 | 1993 | United States | Romania | Democracy, elections |
6
|
0.4
|
| 1990 | 1993 | United States | El Salvador | Human rights, end civil war |
9
|
1.3
|
| 1990 | 1993 | United States | Kenya | Political repression, human rights, democracy |
6
|
2.3
|
| 1990 | 1991 | United Nations | Iraq, prewar | Military disruption, free Kuwait, hostages |
2
|
30.0
|
| 1990 | 1990 | USSR | Lithuania | Revoke Independence Declaration |
6
|
1.5
|
| 1991 | Ongoing | United States | China | Nuclear proliferation |
4
|
negligible
|
| 1991 | 2003 | United Nations | Iraq, postwar | Destabilization |
1
|
54.0
|
| 1991 | 2003 | United Nations | Iraq, postwar | Military impairment |
9
|
54.0
|
| 1991 | 2001 | United Nations | Yugoslavia | Civil war in Bosnia |
9
|
13.3
|
| 1991 | 1997 | United States | Indonesia | Human rights in East Timor |
2
|
0.1
|
| 1991 | 1995 | USSR/Russia | Turkmenistan | Human rights for Russians |
12
|
19.8
|
| 1991 | 1995 | United States | Peru | Democracy, human rights |
12
|
0.5
|
| 1991 | 1994 | United Nations | Haiti | Democracy |
4
|
14.2
|
| 1991 | 1992 | United States | Thailand | Coup |
6
|
0.04
|
| 1991 | 1991 | United States | USSR | Coup |
8
|
negligible
|
| 1992 | Ongoing | European Union | Togo | Democracy, human rights |
4
|
3.4
|
| 1992 | 2003 | United Nations | Libya | Extradite Pan Am suspects |
12
|
0.9
|
| 1992 | 2002 | United States | Azerbaijan | End Armenia embargo |
1
|
0.7
|
| 1992 | 2000 | European Union | Equatorial Guinea | Democracy, human rights |
6
|
15.0
|
| 1992 | 1999 | USSR/Russia | Estonia | Human rights for Russians |
4
|
1.0
|
| 1992 | 1998 | Economic Community of West African States | Liberia | Civil war |
12
|
10.2
|
| 1992 | 1998 | USSR/Russia | Latvia | Human rights for Russians |
4
|
1.0
|
| 1992 | 1998 | United States | Cameroon | Human rights, democracy |
4
|
0.2
|
| 1992 | 1997 | United Nations | Cambodia, Khmer Rouge | Ban Khmer Rouge |
6
|
negligible
|
| 1992 | 1995 | United States | Nicaragua | Civil control over military, expropriation claims |
12
|
2.4
|
| 1992 | 1994 | China | France | Arms sales to Taiwan |
12
|
0.01
|
| 1992 | 1994 | European Union | Algeria | Democracy |
4
|
–0.1
|
| 1992 | 1993 | United States | Malawi | Democracy, human rights |
16
|
6.6
|
| 1993 | Ongoing | United States | Sudan | Terrorism, religious persecution |
6
|
0.4
|
| 1993 | 2002 | United Nations | Angola, Unita | Civil war, democracy |
12
|
7.5
|
| 1993 | 1998 | United States | Nigeria | Human rights, democracy, narcotics |
4
|
0.4
|
| 1993 | 1997 | USSR/Russia | Ukraine | Control over Black Sea fleet, nuclear weapons |
6
|
7.1
|
| 1993 | 1996 | USSR/Russia | Kazakhstan | Independence issues, energy resources |
9
|
4.6
|
| 1993 | 1994 | United States | North Korea | Nuclear proliferation |
9
|
–
|
| 1993 | 1993 | United States | Guatemala | Coup |
16
|
1.3
|
| 1994 | 1998 | United States | Gambia | Democracy |
6
|
–0.02
|
| 1994 | 1995 | Greece | Macedonia | National identity |
9
|
3.2
|
| 1994 | 1995 | Greece | Albania | Release of jailed ethnic Greek leaders |
16
|
2.9
|
| 1994 | 1995 | United Nations | Rwanda | Civil violence |
2
|
–5.6
|
| 1995 | 1998 | United States | Peru | Border conflict |
8
|
negligible
|
| 1995 | 1998 | United States | Ecuador | Border conflict |
8
|
negligible
|
| 1995 | 1996 | Australia | France | Nuclear testing |
4
|
negligible
|
| 1995 | 1995 | European Union | Turkey | Human rights |
9
|
negligible
|
| 1996 | 2000 | United States | Nigeria | Democracy |
9
|
4.9
|
| 1996 | 1999 | East African members of Organization of African Unity | Burundi | Democracy |
6
|
10.4
|
| 1996 | 1998 | United States | Zambia | Human rights, constitutional reform |
4
|
2.9
|
| 1996 | 1998 | United States | Colombia | Narcotics, human rights |
6
|
0.2
|
| 1996 | 1996 | United States, Mercosur members | Paraguay | Possible coup attempt |
12
|
–
|
| 1997 | Ongoing | United Nations | Cambodia, Khmer Rouge | Democracy |
4
|
2.6
|
| 1997 | 2003 | United Nations | Sierra Leone | Democracy |
8
|
5.8
|
| 1998 | 2001 | United States | Pakistan | Nuclear policy |
4
|
1.0
|
| 1998 | 2001 | United States | India | Nuclear proliferation |
2
|
0.2
|
| 1998 | 2001 | United States | Yugoslavia, Serbia | Destabilize Milošević |
12
|
8.3
|
| 1998 | 1999 | United States | Yugoslavia, Serbia | Kosovo |
6
|
8.3
|
| 1998 | 1999 | Turkey | Italy | Kurdish leader |
9
|
–
|
| 1999 | 2002 | United States | Indonesia | Independence for East Timor |
12
|
0.2
|
| 1999 | 2002 | United Nations | Afghanistan | Extradite Osama bin Laden |
2
|
1.1
|
| 1999 | 2002 | United States | Ivory Coast | Coup, democracy |
6
|
0.3
|
| 1991 | 2001 | United States | Pakistan | Coup, democracy |
2
|
negligible
|
| 2000 | 2006 | Economic Community of West African States | Liberia | Support for RUF |
8
|
18.8
|
| 2000 | 2000 | United States | Ecuador | Coup |
12
|
–
|
| 2002 | 2006 | United States | North Korea | Nuclear proliferation |
1
|
0.6
|
(listed by year imposed)
a In some instances, other countries or international organizations participated in
the sanctions.
bDefining Success of Economic Sanctions Episodes:
The success score (success) is the product of two judgmental indices: policy result (result) and sanctions contribution (contr). The authors created an index system to measure these two elements: (1) the extent to which the foreign policy result (result) sought by the sender country was achieved, and (2) the contribution to success (contr) made by sanctions, independent of other policies such as covert measures or military action. Each index is scaled from 1 to 4, and each index value reflects the authors' qualitative judgment, as described below.
Policy result (result)
Index value of 1: Failed outcome
Index value of 2: Unclear but possibly positive outcome
Index value of 3: Positive outcome, meaning the sender's goals were partly realized
Index value of 4: Successful outcome meaning that the sender's goals were largely or entirely realized
Sanctions contribution (contr)
Index value of 1: Net negative contribution to the outcome
Index value of 2: Little or no contribution to the outcome
Index value of 3: Substantial contribution to the outcome
Index value of 4: Decisive contribution to the outcome
The two elements are multiplied to obtain the success index, scaled from 1 to 16. A success score of 9 or higher is characterized as a successful outcome. For example, a score of 9 means that sanctions substantially contributed to the goals the sender country sought and that the goals were in part achieved. A score of 16 means that sanctions made a decisive contribution to an outcome that largely or entirely matched the sender country's goals. By contrast, a score of 1 indicates that the sender country clearly failed to achieve its goals or that sanctions even distracted from achievement of the announced foreign policy goals.
Source: Economic Sanctions Reconsidered, 3d ed. (2008).
Commentary Type